Introduction

What do Mozart and Beethoven have in common? Well, among other things, they both have "sonatas" among their most famous works. I'll bet you've heard this piece by Mozart:

And this wild work of Beethoven:

These two pieces are about as different as you can get within the classical-era piano repertoire, but they have two things in common.

1. They're movements in "piano sonatas"
2. They're in sonata form

That's right, "sonata" means two different (but closely related) things. This might seem confusing, but learning the meanings of these two ideas will do wonders to open your ears to classical music. Let's look at the definitions of "sonata" and see how this abstract idea leads us through the past 400 years of musical evolution.

Sonata vs. Sonata Form

Sonata as a Genre

The easiest place to start is looking at sonatas as a genre. When somebody refers to a sonata by a composer (e.g. Piano Sonata No. 14 in C-sharp minor by Beethoven), they're generally talking about a whole work by that composer; that is, a group of one or more pieces made to be played as an ordered set. Each of these pieces is called a movement. For example, "Beethoven's Moonlight Sonata" refers to all three movements of his Piano Sonata No. 14 in C-sharp minor. As a genre, sonatas explore how these pieces can tie together thematic and stylistic ideas while offering contrasting emotions, excitement levels, and degrees of complexity.

That's about as deep as the strict definition goes. Historically, the sonata genre has offered a structured yet flexible framework for composers to express themselves and innovate their style. Later, we'll go back into the rich traditions and revolutionary composers that truly define the sonata; but first, let's go beyond movements and look at the other rule that makes up many sonatas.

Sonata as a Form

Generally, the movements of a sonata are a canvas for composers to write any kind of piece they'd like, whether it be a pastoral folk song or a virtuosic show piece. The sonata genre first and foremost serves to enrich each of the movements by framing it with contrasting yet connected movements. Beyond this, however, composers often choose to structure one or more of the movements in sonata form.

In music, a "form" simply refers to the overarching structure of a piece, i.e. how it is broken up into sections. Simple examples include binary form (two repeated sections: AABB), verse-chorus form (a modern song form, sometimes including a bridge), and ternary form (ABA). Sonata form is structured in three major sections, corresponding to the beginning, middle, and end. It is sometimes called "sonata-allegro form", referring to the lively tempo at which they are often played. Most sonatas since the classical era have used sonata form for their first movements, and sometimes also for some later movements.

The three major sections of a sonata are the exposition, the development, and the recapitulation. The diagram below should give you a basic idea of that structure, but don't worry about the labels and details yet.

(From: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sonata_form_two-reprise_continuous_ternary_form.png)

Exposition

The first section of the sonata form introduces musical material (just a fancy term for melodies and other musical ideas) in a semi-structured way. At the very beginning, the exposition features a theme or group of themes in the key of the piece. For example, a piano sonata in C major (like the Mozart sonata we heard before) will start with a theme mainly focusing on the white keys of the piano. Then, the piece will usually modulate to a different key (switching to using notes corresponding to different white and black keys on the piano), and introduce a second theme or theme group. This key change makes the second theme feel slightly disconnected from the first, creating tension and musical interest. These two themes correspond to the "A" and "B" in the exposition in the diagram above, and the transition corresponds to the key change.

This section is usually repeated, which has the additional effect of highlighting the contrast between the two theme groups. If you have some music theory knowledge, you'll be interested to know that the exposition usually contrasts two related keys: usually the major home key with the dominant, or the minor home key with the relative major. If you don't, just keep your ears out for a contrast, sometimes almost sounding like the beginning of a new piece.

Development

Following the exposition comes the development, usually smoothly transitioning from the exposition. That means that the first time the exposition is played, it usually repeats from the beginning, and the next time, it goes directly into the development. The development is pretty loosely defined, but almost always combines the themes of the exposition in new and exciting ways. That's where its name comes from - it develops the musical material, generating tension and instability. Possibilities for development include key changes, fugues based on new or existing themes, and exploration of registers of the instrument (higher or lower notes). Occasionally, development sections will neglect to put much focus on expositional material, instead providing new, contrasting ideas.

The development section is at the center of the evolution of the sonata form. Its loose definition is ripe for exploration and invention. By the time listeners get to this section, their attention is caught, and their expectations set. We'll see later how composers discovered new ways of keeping your attention and subverting your expectations.

Recapitulation

While the name might sound daunting, this section literally constitutes a recap of the musical material of the exposition and development (hence the name). It generally continues directly from the development, usually without the development repeating first. The recapitulation technically begins when the very first theme of the piece returns in its original key. Eventually, like in the exposition, the second theme or theme group reappears, but this time in the same key as the first theme. This contrasts the previous sense of tension and disconnection with a sense of relief and triumph.

In the Western classical music tradition, a piece is most "complete" when it begins and ends in the same key. In this way, the recapitulation is the rhetorical conclusion of the form, tying it together like the conclusion of an essay. This rhetorical model, featuring structured development with plenty of room for creativity and personality, has contributed to the relentless innovation of the sonata form.

Exceptions to the rule

While most sonatas of the past few centuries have these three sections, some have additional complications. It is very common, especially since Beethoven, to include an introduction at the beginning of the sonata form. The introduction sometimes introduces musical themes, and other times simply prepares the listener's ears with the style and aesthetic of the piece.

Some pieces in sonata form include a coda, which follows the recapitulation as a final ending. Often, codas are loud and passionate conclusions, referencing musical material in a powerful and satisfying burst.

Especially since the mid 19th century, composers have been pushing the limits of the sonata genre and form. The lines between sections have been blurred or removed entirely, sonatas have been written with first movements in non-traditional forms, and sonatas have been written with as few as one movement. Next, we'll investigate the traditions that established the rules, and the brilliant composers that broke them.

History of the Sonata

Baroque

The term "sonata" appeared first in the Baroque period, which spanned approximately the years 1600 to 1750. Neither the form nor the genre were fully established by that time, but works labelled as sonatas served as clear predecessors to the classical sonata form.

Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713) was an Italian composer, often cited as one of the first major composers of sonatas. His sonatas were instrumental works in several movements, composed for one or more melody instruments, and usually one or more continuo instruments (semi-improvised accompaniment common in the Baroque period). Early Baroque sonatas were largely divided into two classes: Sonata de Chiesa, meaning "church sonata", and Sonata de Camera, meaning "court/chamber sonata". The Sonata de Camera form was made up of Baroque dance pieces, while the Sonata de Chiesa contained contrasting slow and class movements. The Sonata de Chiesa, featuring several movements of contrasting aesthetics, can be seen as an early form of the classical sonata.

A third Baroque sonata form is the trio sonata. As the name implies, this refers to a work with three instruments, namely two melody instruments and continuo (which can constitute several accompaniment instruments, such as keyboard and lute). Technically, a Sonata de Chiesa/Camera can also be a trio sonata, but most composers chose just one of these terms for any given piece. Brilliant trio sonatas include the sonata from Bach's "Musical Offering", Vivaldi's Opus 1, and Bach's organ trio sonatas (the organ plays the part of all three instruments).

As an aside, please listen to the Andante movement from Bach's Organ Trio Sonata No. 4 in E minor. I randomly stumbled upon it a while ago, and immediately recognized something special (and I have seen comments from others who had the same experience).

The final significant group of Baroque sonatas is the keyboard sonata. This genre began with the German polymath Johann Kuhnau (1660-1722), who preceded Bach as the Thomaskantor (musical director) of Saint Thomas' Church in Leipzig! While Bach and Kuhnau composed some works of this type, the dominant figure in the genre is Domenico Scarlatti (1685-1757). Scarlatti composed 555 sonatas for solo keyboard!! They were short, single-movement works, often of great difficulty and animated character. They had a huge impact on keyboard repertoire and on the personality of sonatas as a genre. Each one has something to love, but I recommend K 455 in G major.

Classical

The classical era (~1730-1820) was the birth of the sonata as we know it today. In this era, the sonata form became ubiquitous in sonatas, orchestral, and chamber works. As a genre, composers began using the term to refer to multi-movement pieces for a solo instrument, sometimes with a keyboard accompaniment.

Early Classical

The early classical period is not clearly defined, but it's what people generally think about when they hear the term "classical". This period includes such giants as Mozart, Haydn, Clementi, and the early works of Beethoven. The classical composer seen as the originator of the new era of sonatas is Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (aka C.P.E. Bach, 1714-1788), a son of J.S. Bach. He adapted his father's polyphonic style (interweaving several melodies) into a tool for adding complexity and personality to keyboard works. He also adapted the complex melodies of Baroque music into short, catchy themes that define individual movements. The inception of simple themes was pivotal for the genre, leading to the entanglement of musical material and structure in later sonatas.

Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) is revered for canonizing musical structures. He gained the titles of "Father of the String Quartet" and "Father of the Symphony" for finally laying a solid groundwork for those genres. His affinity for structure likewise led him to compose some of the first traditional sonatas. His gorgeous Sonata No. 59 in E-flat exemplifies the standard movement structure of early sonatas:

1. A brisk allegro movement in sonata form
2. A slow movement, often in a lyrical or cantabile (song-like) style
3. A fast movement, sometimes in the form of a dance

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791), who needs no introduction, made sonatas a primary facet of his writing. We heard his famous Piano Sonata No. 16 in C major at the beginning of this article. Mozart's sonatas followed this same style, but offered their own innovations in the form of structural and stylistic deviations. His Piano Sonata No. 11 in A major features a long first movement in variation form, rather than sonata form! The third movement of the same sonata is the legendary Turkish Rondo alla Turca (Turkish Round), showing off an exotic style and structure. His eccentric Sonata for Two Pianos in D major was used to research the so-called "Mozart Effect", and was found to have a tangible benefit to people with Epilepsy!

Muzio Clementi (1752-1832), a contemporary and occasional rival of Mozart, also took the rising genre and ran with it. His sonatas are stylistically similar to Mozart's, but he also composed many short sonatinas for young pupils and beginners. His Sonatina in F major, op. 36 no. 4 is a fun listen, almost recalling ragtime in its joviality and repetition. His Piano Sonata in B-flat major also places Clementi firmly among the greats.

Beethoven

This section could have been called "Late Classical", but I wanted to be realistic. Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) was absolutely not the only late classical composer, nor is he everyone's favorite. However, his works most vividly delineate the transition from the late classical period to the early romantic period. Furthermore, his sonatas represent a turning point (in fact, several) of the genre.

Though Beethoven wrote some sonatas for accompanied melody instruments, his most famous and numerous sonatas are his piano sonatas, nowadays considered the "New Testament" of the piano repertoire. He technically wrote 35, but the first three were published when he was only 13, and are not generally considered part of the main collection of 32. Starting with his Piano Sonata No. 1 in F minor, he sometimes employed a novel structure of four movements instead of three:

1. An allegro movement in sonata form
2. A slow movement
3. A movement in a dance form (or a similar derived form)
4. A fast finale movement, often in a modified sonata form

Early sonatas

From the get-go, Beethoven's sonatas are explosive and passionate, featuring his trademark contrasts and dynamic range. The first 15 of his 32 sonatas, plus two "easy" sonatas (#19 and #20), make up the early sonatas. Though they are very "Beethoven", they take clear inspiration from his predecessors. In fact, his first set of sonatas (Opus 2, sonatas 1-3) was dedicated to his teacher, Haydn! This early period features the Moonlight Sonata we heard earlier, as well as the "pastoral" sonata and the incredible Sonata Pathétique (a very early example of an introduction).

Middle sonatas

In a great relief for music bloggers, Beethoven actually declared the beginning of his middle sonatas. In communication with Wenzel Krumpholz, a friend and fellow musician of Beethoven's, the composer stated, "From now on, I'm going to take a new path." Sonatas 16-18 and 21-27 are generally considered to make up this period. They showed off a new brand of expressiveness, dissonance, and flair from the composer. Among the great sonatas in this collection are the "Tempest", the "Appassionata", and the "Waldstein".

Note: Not all sonatas have names, but starting with Beethoven, it became increasingly common for popular sonatas to have labels representing their character. Often, these labels come from contemporaries and historians rather than the composers themselves.

Late sonatas

Beethoven's final five sonatas, 28-32, represent some of the greatest and most difficult masterpieces of the piano repertoire. They feature fugal passages (a Baroque compositional technique where several "voices" imitate a theme), length that blew all previous sonatas out of the water, and remarkable structural innovations. Each one deserves a mention:

No. 28 in A major represents Beethoven's sudden enamoration with counterpoint (thematic imitation between voices) in sonatas. It contrasts romantic minimalism with canons and polyphonic dances, finally closing with an extraordinary fugue. This sonata's third movement recalls the theme of the first movement - a technique relatively unheard of until Beethoven.

No. 29 in B-flat major, the "Hammerklavier" sonata, is without question one of the most difficult and influential works for piano. It was considered unplayable for almost 15 years, at which point the legendary pianist and composer Franz Liszt (1811-1886) performed it in concert. Its first movement explores key signatures in a completely nonstandard way, creating a very modern, experimental feeling. The first movement includes a small fugue based on the principle theme, in which the voices eventually recombine in a proud assertion of the opening chords. The third movement is exceptionally beautiful and long, lasting between 15 and 25 minutes depending on tempo. The final movement contains the famously "impossible" fugue, featuring strange structure, great speed, and mathematical mutations to the theme.

No. 30 in E major contains an amazing first movement that sounds almost impressionist. Its second movement renders a symphony on the piano, encapsulating Beethoven's matured style in great contrasts and emotive textures. The final movement is a theme and variations, transforming a beautiful cantabile theme through several distinct and inventive styles.

No. 31 in A-flat major begins with a movement so simple that it can take several listens to really absorb. This minimalism continues into the almost sarcastically enjoyable second movement, a scherzo and trio. The closing movement is an enormously complex set of fugues and melodies, forming a self-referential study of simplicity and complexity.

No. 32 in C minor is something else entirely. This final sonata is the only one of Beethoven's to have only two movements. Asked by a contemporary why this was, the composer supposedly said (possibly jokingly), "I didn't have the time to write a third movement". The first movement explodes into existence with a dissonant introduction, continuing into an archetypically perfect sonata form. The second movement uses the variation form that was common among the late sonatas, but features a surprising twist. Among the variations is a vivid premonition of ragtime or jazz music!! Coincidental though it may be, I think it's profound that Beethoven's final sonata would foresee the new frontier of music his sonatas ushered in.

These late sonatas blur the line between the classical and romantic eras, and we will see the sheer impact made by their radical simplicity and eccentricity.

Romantic

The romantic period (~1800-1910) embraced the individualism and sentimentality represented by Beethoven's late sonatas. By this time, the sonata form had been vividly established as the pinnacle of musical structure. Likewise, the potential of the sonata genre had been elucidated, inspiring composers to push its creative and structural limits.

Frédéric Chopin (1810-1849) is perhaps the definitive romantic composer. The poetry, lyricism, and folky themes of his music identify the romantic era, and his three piano sonatas are no exception. His Piano Sonata No. 1 in C minor (written before his other two sonatas, but published posthumously) started where Beethoven left off, employing contrast and emotions to the fullest extent possible. Chopin's contemporary Franz Liszt (1811-1886) has a single surviving piano sonata in a single, gigantic movement of a similar post-Beethoven disposition.

Johannes Brahms (1833-1897), whose perfectionism and unique style influenced modern chamber music, wrote several sonatas for piano and various other instruments. His Cello Sonata No. 1 in E minor exemplifies the minimalism and sentimentality of the romantic era.

Modern

As Beethoven served as a transition between classical and romantic sonatas, the romantic period can be seen as a transformation of the sonata genre. In the modern era of music (approximately defined as the 20th century onwards), the sonata is a structural suggestion, and an opportunity to embrace and question the musical standards of the past.

Alexander Scriabin (1871-1915) was a Russian composer who was utterly unique in style and personality. His early sonatas reflect both great influence from Chopin, and a totally new perspective on music. His Piano Sonata No. 2 in G-sharp minor, for example, contrasts a deeply romantic first movement with a blindingly complex, impressionistic second movement. Later in his career, however, he developed an atonal, modernist style of music inspired by his mystical beliefs and Synesthesia (an intuitive association of pitches with colors). This led him to produce such unique masterpieces as his Piano Sonata No. 5. Note that this sonata lacks a key signature in its name, since it's atonal. Leaving behind the traditional entanglement of structure and tonality, Scriabin delineates sections with contrasting textures and soundscapes.

Sergei Prokofiev (1891-1953) was a Russian and Soviet composer with a particularly impressive output. Among ballets, operas, concertos, and symphonies, Prokofiev composed nine piano sonatas! In his diverse career, he wrote pieces ranging from pro-Soviet mass songs to musical lamentations of World War II. Among his so-called "War Sonatas" is his Piano Sonata No. 7 in B♭ major, officially entitled "Stalingrad". This work, along with the other War Sonatas, is a terrifying and beautiful reflection on the death and suffering that Prokofiev experienced both directly and indirectly.

Alban Berg (1885-1935) was an Austrian composer who, similarly to Scriabin in his later years, combined lyricism with modern atonalism. His pieces are largely build around the "twelve-tone technique", employing all twelve notes of our tonal system rather than a major or minor scale. His single piano sonata explores the outermost possibilities of the piano, combining familiar romantic sounds with alien atonality.

Conclusion

The long history of the sonata makes it hard to latch onto a single definition. Nobody is expected to sit down at a piano concert and point out the exposition and development. However, seeing how this genre loosely but surely ties together centuries of music is somewhat freeing. The commonality between all sonatas is that they structure musical material in a way that makes a clear story. Whether you're listening to a familiar sonata by Mozart, or an exotic masterpiece of Scriabin, try to listen for the contrasting themes and underlying structure. You may end up with a better understanding of how the composer understood music, and of the story they were trying to tell.